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                                   Detail from "The Blue Angels" by Lee James Pantas

The Western Caribbean region encompasses some of the largest islands in the Caribbean, including the mainland of Central America from Mexico to Columbia, and the island of Cuba and includes tracts specific to: 1) Mexico, 2) Belize, 3) Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala and El Salvador, 4) Costa Rica and Panama,. 5) Columbia and Ecuador, 6) Cuba, 7) Jamaica, 8) Cayman Islands. It is also home to considerable and significant areas of coral reef. Human impacts on the reefs in this region are varied, from little impact due to distance from population centers but others have been severely impacted in a negative way from over fishing, sedimentation and nutrient pollution. The reefs near Jamaica, for instance, have been severely degraded for decade by human direct contacts.

The region is also severely impacted by extreme weather conditions linked to El Nino, which can cause excessive warming which leads to widespread coral bleaching and subsequent mortality, causing local extinctions of particular species. The frequent occurrence of such weather related events also helps to explain the lack of more extensive reef development in the region.

Mexico has numerous coral reef communities but the main concentrations are in four areas: the Gulf of Mexico and Pacific Coast;  the near shore reefs between Tampico and Veracruz in the western Bahia de Campeche: the more distant offshore reefs of the Campeche Bank; and the fringing reef and atolls of the Caribbean Sea.

The most extensive reef development in Mexico is in the state of Quintana Roo on the east coast of the Yucatan Peninsula. Here the continental shelf is very narrow, in places less than two kilometers wide. There are partly submerged fringing reefs along much of this coastline, while from Xcalak southwards there is a fully developed fringing reef which continues to Ambergris Key in Belize, and then extends into the Belize Barrier Reef.

There is little information available on the human impacts on coral reefs and communities in the Mexico Pacific region. Most of the reefs occur in places subject to recent intensive development for tourism, and sedimentation arising from deforestation in adjacent watersheds in increasing.  A small aquarium fishery in the Gulf of California has recently been expanded, with combined permits for the collection of nearly 90,000 individual fish (from twenty species), 1,000 corals and 80,000 other invertebrates per year.  These figures are of concern because the coral communities from which these collection are taken are small and scattered, and their natural vulnerability is further heightened by the extreme environmental conditions of the region. In the Gulf of Mexico, the reefs near Veracruz have probably suffered the greatest damage from human impacts due to their proximity to the coast and their location near the important ports Veracruz and Tuxpan. Bank reefs have all suffered from oil-related activities over the past 25 years. The Caribbean reefs of Mexico have been subject to intense fishing and tourist related activities since the 1960's and small reef patches, located near El Garrafon at Isla Mujeres and Punta Nizuc at Cancun, have been completely destroyed. Additionally impacts by humans is becoming more evident along the Cancun-Tulum tourist corridor in places such as Akumal and Puerto Morelos, as well as the offshore island of Cozumel. The impacts of construction and inadequate sewage systems in the porous limestone, combined with the direct impacts of anchor and diver damage, are a cause for concern throughout this area. On a hopeful note, a large number of marine protected areas have been declared which include coral reefs, and active management of some of these is supporting increased protection of coral reef resources in these areas.:

OFFICIAL, SCIENTIFIC & GOVERNMENTAL SITES
Centro Ecologico Akumal
Reef Base: Mexico
World Resources Institute article on Mexico's coral reefs

Although Belize is a relatively small country, it has some of the most developed coral reef systems in the region. The coastline is fringed by a shallow shelf with a barrier reef running along its outer edge, and the Belize Barrier Reef is the longest in the Caribbean, 230 kilometers in length, although there are barrier-like reefs in Florida and Cuba which are considerably larger. To the north the barrier reef becomes joined to the mainland at Ambergris Cay, a southerly extension of the Yucatan Peninsula. At this point the reef system becomes fringing, and continues north along the coastline of Mexico. These reefs, together with others to the south in Honduras, are known as the Meso-American Reef.

The mainland coastal reefs of Belize are dominated by narrow sandy beaches and mangrove forests, often associated with river deltas, and the development of reefs here is extremely limited by fluctuations in turbidity and sediments. Patch reefs occur also along the coast in this region although they are much more abundant in the south, and vary considerably in size. Lagoons found here also houses regionally important populations of the Caribbean manatee, although there are concerns that illegal hunting may be reducing its numbers, particularly in the south of the country.

One of the strongest naturally occurring environmental impacts on the coral reefs of Belize has been hurricane damage. Hurricane Hattie in 1961 was reported to have reduced live coral cover by 80 percent in some places, although the reefs subsequently made a good recovery.  El Nino also has taken its toll, with its warming trends causing considerable local coral bleaching.

The major threats to Belize's coral reefs are over fishing, sedimentation, agricultural runoff, sewage and dredging. There are also concerns that Belize's growing shrimp aquaculture industry, with its waste byproducts, may be having a negative impact on coastal fisheries and in particular the mangrove breeding grounds. Considerable efforts have been and are being made towards the development of a system of marine protected areas. The Hol Chan Marine Reseve in the north of the country is widely sited as an example of an effective no-take zone, implemented with the support and collaboration of the local population This site has significantly higher fish numbers and biomass than surrounding unprotected areas but, more importantly, its protection has demonstrated increased sustainable fish yields.

OFFICIAL, SCIENTIFIC & GOVERNMENTAL SITES:
Reef Base: Belize
The Barrier Reef on Ambergris Caye
The Coastal Treasures of Belize
World Resources Institute article on Belize's coral reefs

COMMERCIAL
Scuba Diving Belize.com

Honduras has a long mainland coast facing the Caribbean Sea but dominated by river inputs and extensive mangrove communities. There are no recorded coastal coral reefs, although small, poorly developed coral communities are recorded from Puerto Cortes, La Ceiba and Trujillo. Important coral reefs do occur around the Bay Islands and also the Cayos Cochinos which lie between Roatan and the mainland. Fringing and patch reefs also occur to the east associated with the Misquitia Cays and Banks. There are also reefs associated with the remote Swan Islands some 150 kilometers northeast of the mainland.

Efforts to protect the marine resources of the Bay Islands are underway and an unofficial marine reserve has been set up around the West End and Sandy Bay. There are also several other marine protected areas in Honduras, notably the Cayos Cochinos Biological Reserve, which covers the entire island and reef system of this area and is actively managed with support from the private sector.

Nicaragua's coral reefs occur along its entire 350 kilometer Caribbean coastline, but especially around the offshore islands, notably the Miskito Cays in the north and Corn Cays towards the center of the country. These, together with other shelf edge reefs, may be a true barrier reef system. Reefs also occur around a number of inshore cays: Man O' War Cays, Crawl, Set Net and Taira Cays and the Pearl Cays. Seagrass beds, predominately Thalassia testudinum, cover huge areas in between the mainland, these cays and the continental shelf edge. They are believed to be the most extensive seagrass beds in the Caribbean, and may provide food and refuge for more than half of the remaining green turtles Chelonai mydas in the Caribbean. They also play an important role as nursery habitat and feeding ground for coral reef fish and invertebrates, and buffer the coral reefs from much of the low salinity water and sediment flowing from the coastal rivers.

Nicaraguan reefs have been impacted by increased sedimentation from the clearing of forests, increased sewage, and waste from fish processing plants. The indigenous Miskito Indians, together with some other communities, use the reefs in the north of Nicaragua for fisheries. For this most part this appears sustainable, however the green turtle harvest is very high (14,000 per year) and is in urgent need of control. Illegal fishing from neighboring countries may be reducing fish stocks also in some places,

Guatemala and El Salvador have no true coral reefs, although both countries do have a few small coral communities. Very little is known of them. Those in Guatemala are concentrated in the Gulf of Honduras, while El Salvador's are near Los Cobanos.

OFFICIAL, SCIENTIFIC & GOVERNMENTAL SITES:
El Salvador's Biological Diversity
National Parks and Protected Areas of Nicaragua
Reef Base: El Salvador
Reef Base: Guatemala
Reef Base: Honduras
World Resources Institute article on Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala & El Salvador's coral reefs


Costa Rica's Caribbean coast is dominated by wide areas of alluvial sediments and there are a considerable number of rivers that flow into the sea. These conditions greatly restrict the growth of coral reefs, although there are fringing communities at Limon and Punta Cahuita. Less developed coral communities are also found from Puerto Viejo to Punta Mona. In the past three decades, the Costa Rican coral reefs have suffered a terrible decline, primarily caused by the increase in deforestation on the mainland. This is particularly apparent at Cahuita, where live coral was 40 percent in the late 1970's but had decreased to only 11 percent by 1993, while the cover of algae and rubble increased from 60 to 90 percent.  By 1999, coral cover had sadly declined to only 3 percent.

Panama, by contrast, has a more complex coastline, including rocky shores and tow areas of extensive offshore islands, and there is extensive coral reef development, notably at Bocas del Toro in the west and Cristobal to the east. In the Panama coral reefs, some 64 species of hard coral have been recorded, and in general, human impact is less extensive than in Costa Rica, particularly in the offshore reefs that are farther from human activity.

Some of the best developed reefs in Panama occur along the San Blas coastline where a number of islands and reef lie on the outer edge of the continental shelf as patch and fringing reefs around coral cays in a barrier-type structure. Further east, the reefs and islands are mostly located closer to the shore. Here 57 species of scleractinian coral have been recorded, and because this area is an autonomous region run by the Kuna Indians,  it has received good protection. The mainland coast remains heavily forested and little sediment runoff occurs to impact the reefs.

The Eastern Pacific coastlines of both Costa Rica and Panama are strongly affected by extremes of water temperature associated with El Nino, and these restrict the growth of offshore coral reefs, while terrestrial runoff greatly restricts reef development on the mainland coasts. In general, reef development is very sporadic and mostly at locations around the offshore islands.

OFFICIAL, SCIENTIFIC & GOVERNMENTAL SITES:
Panama Coral Reef Monitoring Network
Reef Base: Costa Rica
Reef Base: Panama

Colombia has over 1700 kilometers of Caribbean coastline but coral reefs are restricted to less than 150 kilometer, and are located away from major estuaries and sediment plumes. The Caribbean current moves water in a north to northeasterly direction off of the coast, and this creates localized upwellings, bringing cold water to the surface and further curtailing the development of coral reefs. The most extensive reef structures are found off Santa Marta (at Punta Betin, Isla Morro Grande, Bahia Granate, Bahia Chengue and Bahia Gayraca) and Cartagena (at Islas de San Bernardo and Islas del Rosario). These reefs have all experienced great negative changes in the past twenty years with decline in live coral and the rise in algae cover. This change has been attributed to a combination of bleaching, coral disease and pollution from the area's major cities and ports.

Additionally, the offshore reefs on the Nicaraguan Rise, while well developed and diverse and which represent about seventy-five percent of the coral complexes in Colombia, also appear to be in decline. One aspect  of the problem seems to be over fishing by the inhabitants of the densely populated nearby  island of San Andres. 

There are only a few small coral reef developments along the Pacific coast of Colombia, most notably at Tebada and Ensenada de Utria. These are small fringing and patch reefs and are relatively young in age. The reefs of the Ensenada de Utria are fortunately protected in a national park, and given their remote location, human negative impacts seem to be low. However, they were impacted, with coral bleaching and mortality, by the recent El Nino. Colombia does have a number of designated protected areas containing coral reefs, but the larger Caribbean ones suffer notable problems of mis-management and some illegal activities continue.

Ecuador has a few coral communities which occur on the mainland coast of Ecuador and one true reef at Machalilla, however it is in the Galapagos Islands that reefs are best developed. This archipelago is influenced by a major surface current, the South Equatorial Current, which flows from the east, largely fed by the cool Peru Oceanic Current and the colder Peru Coastal Current.

For the most part however, these reefs are poorly developed patches and do not form true fringing structures. Species diversity is also low, and although the reefs are well protected there have been some impacts from bleaching and erosion.  Fishing pressures have increased significantly in a few areas, notably for the trade in sea cucumbers and sharks. Although the human population is low in the Galapagos, the fishing lobby is powerful and efforts to place restrictions on the fishing industry locally has led to considerable hostility and violence by the fishermen, but also some weakening of catch limits as a form of appeasement, not good news for the coral reefs.


OFFICIAL, SCIENTIFIC & GOVERNMENTAL SITES:
Reef Base: Columbia

Cuba is the largest of the Caribbean islands, with a long, complex coastline and extensive chains of offshore cays and islands, with coral reefs stretching virtually along the entire border of the Cuban shelf. The majority of these lie offshore in long tracts which resemble barrier reefs, separated from the mainland by large lagoons. The longest runs for 400 kilometers along the north coast from the Archipelago de Sabana to the Archipelago de Camaguey. On the south coast, a similar tract stretches 350 kilometers from Trinidad to Cabo Cruz. Unlike true barrier reefs, the lagoons behind the reefs are very shallow, and in most cases, these wide lagoons have protected the reefs from significant human impact.

In Cuba, only short stretches of the coastline have been heavily urbanized or industrialized and for this reason, pollution tends to be localized and less than 3 percent of Cuban coral reefs believed to be affected by any significant degree of organic pollution. In terms of reef fish, Cuban reefs have higher biomass, species richness and average size than many other countries in the region, but these were declining in the 1980's and 1990's due to fishing, an important Cuban industry

OFFICIAL, SCIENTIFIC & GOVERNMENTAL SITES:
Ocean Conservancy Page on Cuba's Coral Reefs
Reef Base: Cuba
Scuba Cuba
World Resources Institute article on Cuba's coral reefs

COMMERCIAL
USA Cuba Travel: Scuba Diving Locations


Jamaica is the third largest island in the Greater Antilles and is located in the center of the Caribbean Sea. Patchy reef formations grow on the south coast, and reefs and corals also grow on nine offshore banks, notably at the Pedro and Morant Cays. Jamaica has had a long history of exploiting its marine resources since colonial days -fishing the immediate Jamaican shoreline was  undertaken with such intensity that local fish stocks have now collapsed. Over fishing is particularly bad on the north coast, where the narrow coastal shelf concentrates fishing in a smaller area,  making the reef communities  more accessible. Additionally the offshore banks are also over fished as well.

Jamaican reefs are further impacted by human activities, including sedimentation caused by soil erosion as well as nutrient pollution. Coastal development has been rapid in Jamaica, encouraged by massive tourism developments, and in many areas, sewage receives little or no treatment.

Jamaica's reefs have been well studied by scientists for several decades and efforts to reverse some of the many problems facing the country are beginning in some areas, and a number of marine protected zones have been declared. Active management of coral reefs, with full community involvement, is being pursued in a number of regions, in particular Montego Bag, Negril and the recently declared Portland Bight Protected Area.

OFFICIAL, SCIENTIFIC & GOVERNMENTAL SITES:
Reef Base: Jamaica
World Resources Institute article on Jamaica's coral reefs

COMMERCIAL
Earthwatch Institute: Jamaica's Coral Reefs

The Cayman Islands consist of three islands: Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac and Little Cayman, and all three are Overseas Territories of the United Kingdom. All are very low lying and weather conditions are close to those found in Jamaica. The reefs found associated with each island are all very similar to each other. An interesting note is that the Grand Cayman Island now has one of the largest green turtle rookeries in the Caribbean, having recovered from extensive over fishing during the early days of colonial rule when some 18,000 turtles were slaughtered annually.

The Cayman Islands have experienced a significant population increase over the last thirty years, and tourism remains the mainstay of the economy, aiming at the luxury market and catering primarily to visitors from the United States. About forty percent of these affluent visitors go diving, attracted to the easy access to clear waters and sheer drop-offs. Most of the pressure on the reefs then arises from the massive, tourist focused development, and pollution and the contamination of groundwater by sewage are potential problems as is over fishing. The deeper reefs off George Town have been destroyed by the continual anchoring of cruise ships and nearby shallow reefs have been damaged by  sedimentation.

On a positive note, a comprehensive system of marine protected areas has been established in the Cayman Islands covering thirty-four percent of the coastal waters of the islands, enforced by number of guards, and also regularly subject to detailed monitoring.

OFFICIAL, SCIENTIFIC & GOVERNMENTAL SITES:
Reef Base: Cayman Islands
World Resources Institute article on Cayman Islands' coral reefs

Extracted and adapted from The World Atlas of Coral Reefs, by Mark D. Spalding, Corinna Ravilious and Edmund P. Green, published by the University of California Press . For more complete and in-depth coverage of the topics presented in this webpage, I recommend highly purchasing a copy of this beautifully illustrated book. Just click on the University of California Press link above to do so.